Self-Directed Learning

In 1971, Tough identified the concept of “self-teaching”. As a result of research, Tough and other researchers have found that 90% of adults are engaged in some type of informal learning. This self-teaching was later renamed self-directed learning (SDL) and is defined as learning that is intentionally sought out, planned, organized, controlled and evaluated by the learner (Merriam & Baumgartner (2020). .

Knowles (1988) identified 6 steps for instructors to use when planning SDL projects or assignments. These steps are:

Create an atmosphere of mutual respect and support
Determine learning needs
Identify learning goals
Note resources for learning, both human and material
Implement appropriate learning strategies
Evaluate learning outcomes

Self-directed learning has been explored and myths and critiques have been identified. For example, the myth that SDL is done in isolation has been debunked, as one may choose to receive insight from peers, experts, teachers, etc. Additionally, SDL has been identified as a process, but it can also be a characteristic of an individual. Remember, Knowles identified self-directedness as one of his assumptions of andragogy, so often times we expect that as one matures they can participate in SDL more readily. However, we cannot overlook cultural aspects that could deter someone from being able to adequately participate in SDL, no matter their maturity level. For example, the Chinese model of education is still built on the Confucian idea that the students should listen and absorb information rather than think for themselves. These individuals could struggle if assigned an SDL project or asked to present their own ideas..

Self-directed learning is measured along a continuum as some individuals are able to function very well as an independent learner, where others rely heavily on others for guidance. This continuum of self-directedness allows for SDL to be used in a variety of settings, including a formal, structured learning environment. In fact, SDL can be an effective teaching strategy in the classroom or in the online learning environment. Utilizing SDL in a formal classroom setting allows the instructor to be an active participant in facilitating learning and assisting the learners to identify goals and strategies and ultimately assess one’s own learning.

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Here is an article on SDL in the digital age. It is interesting because the authors interviewed health care professionals, including nurses.

Adult learners’ perceptions of self-directed learning and digital technology usage in continuing professional education: An update for the digital age,

Experiential Learning

Since the early 60's, educators have recognized the role of experience in learning. In his book, The Meaning of Adult Education, Lindeman states, "the resource of highest value in adult education is the learner's experience (Lindeman, 1961, p.6). Knowles (1988) viewed experience as personal or environmental, acknowledging that "learning is a continuous process grounded in experience" (p. 27). Kolb developed a four-stage model of experiential learning that he linked to learning styles and teaching methodologies.

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Criticisms of this model are that it does not consider context or power dynamics. As described in Merriam and Baumgartner (2020), Jarvis builds on these criticism by situating experiential learning in personal history, dividing it into experimental learning and reflective practice. Experimental learning builds on the interaction between the person and the environment. Reflective practice involves thinking and monitoring actions as they happen. The Institute for Experiential Learning provides a good overview of current practices, offering a synopsis in the video below.

Transformative Learning

Transformative learning theory has become the most prevalent adult learning theory since Malcolm Knowles’ definition of andragogy was introduced in the 1970s. Transformative, as the word implies, means a change has taken place. Hence, transformative learning theory addresses how one’s assessment of a situation or the world changes as a result of an experience. The theory consists of three perspectives: cognitive perspective, beyond rational, and social change.

The Cognitive Perspective

The founder of transformative learning theory, Jack Mezirow (1997), stated that the theory involves a 10-step process as noted here:

Disorienting dilemma
Self-examination
Sense of alienation
Relating discontent to others
Explaining options for new behavior
Building confidence in new ways
Planning a course of action
Knowledge to implement plans
Experimenting with new roles
Reintegration

A change in one’s way of thinking (cognition) occurs as a result of going through the process. Mezirow did admit that emotions, intuition, context, and relationships play a role in the transformation as well, however, he strongly believed that the cognitive aspect is the most important part of the transformation.

Beyond Rational

John Dirkx “sees transformational learning as emotional ‘soul work’” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 86). Dirkx believes that paying attention to and acknowledging one’s emotions can improve the overall transformative learning experience. By using imagery along with the emotions, to assess a situation, it allows the learner a more holistic approach to forming a new perspective.

Nadira Charaniya believes that one must draw on the spiritual and cultural dimensions of a situation to explore and engage in a cultural-spiritual transformation. This viewpoint, if practiced, can lead to own’s own identity being transformed, or at least a change can occur in one’s personal beliefs and/or practices.

Edmund O’Sullivan took on a much more expansive view of transformation learning, in that he includes the planet and the ecosystem in his perspective. O’Sullivan’s belief is that we are all interconnected and that one individual situation can impact the whole world. Hence transforming our thinking to a more global perspective means that any change or transformation one undergoes will affect the welfare of everyone worldwide.

Social Change

The social change perspective of transformational learning identified by Paulo Freire, is believed to occur at the individual and social levels. As it involves a social-emancipatory perspective that requires one to recognize the power and oppression in one’s life and work to change it. Due to criticism for not addressing social change in his theory, Mezirow later added to his original theory to include a social context, stating that one must examine the dominant ideologies present in society and then work to change things so as to rid society of the injustices or inequalities that exist. Most transformative learning that occurs in society occurs as a result of community-based programs.

Where Transformative Learning Occurs

Transformative learning has been studied in a multitude of ways and from various perspectives. However, transformative learning always begins with the individual. Additionally, transformative learning can occur in the classroom, online, in the workplace and in the community. Strategies to implement the use of transformative learning include critical reflection, dialogue, artistic expression, and collaboration, and one must allow time for transformative learning to occur in the education setting. Evaluating the outcomes of transformative learning most commonly occurs via interviews and self-report.

Review this video for additional information on transformative learning:

Conclusion

In conclusion, due to the lack of research on adult learning, Knowles wrote about andragogy, which is the instruction of adult learners. The assumptions that Knowles identified with regard to adult learning, can help to guide ones’ instructional practices when teaching adult learners. Self-directed learning is a defining characteristic of adult learners and should be utilized in the educational environment. However, more recently, transformative learning has become the center of research and writing about adult learning. Hence, the room must be made in the educational environment for transformative learning to occur as well.

References

Arrington, A. (2012). An American Family's Journey in China. Abrams Press.

Clardy, A. (2000). Learning on their own: Vocationally oriented self-directed learning projects. Human Resource Development Quarterly 11(2), 105-126. https://doi.org/10.1002/1532-1096(200022)11:2<105::AID-HRDQ2>3.0.CO;2-5

Knowles, M. S. (1988). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Cambridge Book Co.

Mezirow, J. (1997).Transformative learning: Theory to practice. In R. Wlodarsky & C. Hansman (Eds). New directions for adult and continuing education (pp. 5-12). https://www.ecolas.eu/eng/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Mezirow-Transformative-Learning.pdf

Merriam, S. & Baumgartner, L. (2020). Learning in adulthood (14th ed). Jossey Bass.

Merriam, S. B. and Bierema, L. L. (2014). Adult learning: linking theory and practice. Jossey -Bass.